IAP: Agronomic parameter of the inoculated plants; LSD: Least significant difference; LWI: Leaf Wilting Index; Ndl: Number of wilted leaves; NTl: Number of total leaves; PSA: Potato sucrose agar; RPAP: Percentage reduction of each agronomic parameter; SCc: Surface colonized by the fungus; STr: Total surface of the rhizome slice.

Iris germanica L. (Iridaceae), commonly known as bearded iris, is a perennial herbaceous plant. Widely cultivated across the world for its large, vividly colored flowers and strong ornamental appeal, this species is extensively used in landscaping, botanical gardens, and horticultural hybridizations. Its vegetative rhizome multiplication makes it particularly appreciated for its phenotypic stability and hardiness (Rønsted et al. 2012; Mazaheri et al. 2021). Beyond its aesthetic significance, I. germanica also possesses notable medicinal properties. Extracts from its rhizomes have shown antioxidant, diuretic, and anti-inflammatory properties, justifying their use in some traditional medicines (Kumar et al. 2015; Morning et al. 2017).

However, I. germanica is also exposed to numerous biotic threats, particularly soil-borne fungal infections, that severely compromise its growth, health, and propagation capacity. Among the most destructive pathogens are species of the genus Fusarium Link, a group of ubiquitous filamentous fungi responsible for severe diseases in a wide range of plant species. Several Fusarium species are known to cause ornamental diseases (Hembrom et al. 2019), with Fusarium oxysporum and Fusarium solani frequently reported to be responsible for rhizome rot in Iris germanica (Baayen et al. 1998; Mazaheri et al. 2020). These fungi often penetrate through mechanical or natural wounds and colonize vascular or cortical tissues, causing necrosis, wilting, reduced vegetative vigor, and even rapid plant death (Di Pietro et al. 2003).

In Morocco, iris cultivation is experiencing recent but promising growth, especially in the production of rhizomes (iris roots or 'orris roots') mainly used for the cosmetic industry and luxury perfumery (Khatib et al. 2022). The isolation, identification, and characterization of these phytopathogenic fungi are therefore essential to understand their pathogenicity, adapt cultural practices, and implement effective and sustainable control strategies. In this context, the objective of this study was to investigate the pathogenicity of different Fusarium spp. isolates via rhizome inoculation, with emphasis on symptom development, isolate aggressiveness, and consequent damage to the host plant.

Thirteen isolates belonging to the genus Fusarium were obtained from rhizomes and roots of Iris germanica plants collected from the Muslim cemetery in Taza, North-east (Achajri et al. 2025) (Table 1). Among these, isolates SP14, SP21 and RIZ2B were assigned to Fusarium oxysporum, while S4 and R33 were attributed to F. solani, according to their morphological characteristics. Species discrimination was based on macroscopic features observed on PSA: F. solani typically developing cream to white, woolly colonies with a pale reverse, whereas F. oxysporum produced cottony to floccose colonies often showing violet pigmentation, as well as on microscopic traits. F. solani was characterized by robust, thick-walled macroconidia (39–75 × 5–9 µm, with 3–5 septa), cylindrical microconidia (5–12 × 2–4 µm), and abundant, coarse-walled chlamydospores (7–12 µm). Conversely, F. oxysporum displayed more delicate and slightly curved macroconidia (27–39 × 3–5 µm), smaller oval microconidia (5–12 × 2–3 µm, generally aseptate), and chlamydospores occurring singly or in pairs (7–11 µm) (Fig. 1). These diagnostic elements are in agreement with the identification criteria outlined by Leslie and Summerell (2006).

Fig. 1. Morphological characterization of Fusarium oxysporum isolates SP14 and SP21. (A–B) SP14: abundant hyaline, mostly non-septate microconidia with regular oval to cylindrical profiles. (C–D) SP21: representative microconidia exhibiting similar morphology. Observed traits align with the species description of F. oxysporum. Scale corresponds to ocular micrometer calibration.

Table 1. Fusarium spp. isolates from Iris germanica rhizomes and roots native to Taza, Morocco.

The plants grown from these inoculated rhizomes showed leaf wilting and necrosis in the root system. Additionally, there was a decrease in various agronomic parameters (total number of healthy leaves; mean leaf area; number of newly formed rhizomes; plant weight) compared to the control.

This allowed for an evaluation of disease severity in Iris plants. The isolates RZ32, RIZ21, SP21, and SP14 were the most virulent, causing wilting and leaf drop (Fig. 2), with wilting leaf indices of 50%, 33.33%, 30.55%, and 21.81%, respectively. All other isolates caused only minor or no leaf wilting, ranging from 15.5% to 0% (Fig. 3).

Fig. 2. Symptoms of various strains in leaves. (A) Control. (B–C) Strain SP14. (D) Strain SP21.

Fig. 3. Percentage of leaf wilting in Iris plants caused by different Fusarium isolates. Two values do not differ significantly at the 5% level if followed by the same letter.

Furthermore, deep brown necrosis was observed on the rhizomes and roots of inoculated plants. The highest rhizome and root rot scores were seen in plants inoculated with RIZ2B, which scored a 3. This was followed by RIZ21, RIZ31, RZ32, RZ26, SP14, R33, and SP21, all of which scored a 2. A score of 1 was given to RZ41. Meanwhile, plants inoculated with other isolates showed no symptoms (Fig. 4). Necrosis symptoms appeared on the rhizomes (Fig. 5), along with deterioration of the root system in the most severe cases (Fig. 6).

Fig. 4. Rhizome and root rot scores in iris plants inoculated with different Fusarium spp. isolates. Two values do not differ significantly at the 5% level if followed by the same letter.

Table 1 (severity scale). Rhizome and root rot severity scale used for disease assessment.

The pathogenicity of Fusarium isolates caused significant changes in several agronomic traits of Iris germanica, indicating major physiological stress. Fusarium spp. significantly affected key parameters such as total leaf count, average leaf area, plant fresh weight, and rhizome number (Fig. 7). Data analysis revealed a substantial reduction in the number of leaves, reaching up to 73.89% with RZ32, 65.27% with R'12 and RZ'1, S4, and RIZ21, 60.83% with SP21, and 52.20% with R33. Conversely, isolates SP14, RIZ31, RIZ2B, RZ41, RZ'2, and RZ26 did not affect leaf formation (Table 2).

Fig. 5. (A–B) Necrosis symptoms seen in rhizomes after inoculation.

A marked decrease in average leaf area (50.88%) was observed in plants inoculated with Fusarium solani R33 (35.41 cm²), followed by RIZ21 (36.58 cm²) and RZ41 (43.4 cm²), representing reductions of 46.34% and 36.58%, respectively, from the control's 68.03 cm². The other isolates resulted in moderate reductions, with leaf areas ranging from 49.75 to 57.97 cm², not exceeding 26.87% (Table 2).

Fig. 6. (A–B–C) Necrosis observed in roots inoculated with the isolate RIZ2B of Fusarium oxysporum.

Additionally, there was a significant decrease in new rhizome production in plants inoculated with RIZ31, RZ'2, RZ41, and SP14, with reductions of over 75%. The number of rhizomes per plant dropped by 93.86% to 75.04%, leaving about one rhizome. RZ26 and RIZ2B followed, each with around 2 rhizomes per plant. In contrast, other isolates maintained the same or even higher number of rhizomes than the control (averaged 5.33), with some plants producing up to 10 rhizomes, such as RZ32 and R33 (Table 2).

A significant reduction of over 46% was observed in the total fresh biomass of inoculated plants with isolates SP14, S4, and RIZ31 (53.83 g, 53.80 g, and 51.8 g, respectively) compared to healthy controls at 100.5 g. The biomass with RIZ2B was 66.6 g. Conversely, RZ32 and R33 (F. solani) retained relatively high plant mass at 84.28 g and 81.26 g, respectively, indicating lower virulence for this trait (Fig. 7).

Fig. 7. Symptoms observed on the iris plant after inoculation with different isolates of Fusarium. (A) Control plant. (B) RZ31. (C) SP14 (Fusarium oxysporum). (D) Strain R33 (Fusarium solani). (E) R'12. (N) Necrosis.

Table 2. Assessment of how Fusarium isolates inoculation affects Iris germanica plant development.

Two values in the same column do not differ significantly at the 5% threshold if followed by the same letter. TNHL: Total number of healthy leaves; RPTNHL: Reduction percentage of TNHL; MLA: Mean Leaf Area; RPMLA: Reduction percentage of MLA; NrNFR: Number of Newly Formed Rhizomes; RPNrNFR%: Reduction percentage; PW: Plant weight; RPPW: Reduction percentage of Plant weight.

After seven days, all Fusarium isolates colonized and sporulated on Iris rhizome slices, showing variable colonization levels (Table 3). SP14 reached 100% colonization, followed by RIZ2B (56%), S4 (49%), and SP21 (36%). RIZ2B produced the highest conidial density (0.32 × 10⁶ conidia·mm⁻²), while the others ranged from 0.06 to 0.07 × 10⁶. Yellow-brown discoloration and dry rot developed after ten days, confirming tissue degradation and differences in isolate virulence (Fig. 8).

Table 3. Colonization and conidia production by Fusarium isolates on Iris germanica rhizome slices after 10 days of incubation.

Two values do not differ significantly at the 5% level if followed by the same letter.

Fig. 8. In vitro inoculation of Iris germanica rhizome slices. (A–B) Fusarium solani S4. (C) Fusarium oxysporum RIZ2B. (D) SP21. (E) SP14.

This study evaluated Fusarium spp. isolates from the rhizomes and roots of Iris germanica, an ornamental medicinal plant, for their ability to cause disease and induce changes in morphology and physiology. Inoculation with these isolates caused various symptoms, including necrosis and decay of underground tissues and reduced vegetative growth.

The findings describe various plant responses to Fusarium spp. To our knowledge, this is the first report comparing the pathogenicity of different Fusarium strains infecting the underground parts of Iris germanica and recording the severity of symptoms. Fusarium oxysporum isolates (notably SP14, SP21, and RIZ2B) significantly hindered the growth of the host plant. Their activity included a marked suppression of aerial biomass for SP14 and a net loss of formed bulbs, which may affect vegetative propagation. These strains also caused necrotic leaf spots and root rot areas, common symptoms of vascular wilt caused by F. oxysporum (Di Pietro et al. 2003; Qostal et al. 2019a, 2019b; Elbouazaoui et al. 2022; Mazaheri et al. 2020). Their symptoms closely resemble those seen in saffron, where F. oxysporum is a primary pathogen causing corm rot and leaf necrosis (Hu et al. 2021; Elouark et al. 2025).

According to Salehi and Safaie (2015), Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. lilii is the primary species associated with rot disease in lily bulbs. Su (2002) reported that the pathogen causing rot spots in Iris japonica Thumb. in Chongqing was identified as Fusarium oxysporum Schl. based on its morphology, cultural characteristics, and pathogenicity. Caligiore-Gei et al. (2023) also demonstrated that some Fusarium oxysporum isolates are highly virulent, causing severe rot symptoms in healthy saffron corms after experimental inoculation. Fusarium solani isolates (R33 and S4) showed varying levels of pathogenicity; they caused fewer necrotic symptoms but still produced notable morphological changes, such as smaller leaves, finer leaf structure, and slight biomass reductions. Although less severe, these symptoms suggest a background infection, likely confined to cortical tissues, as observed in other sensitive cultures (El Haddadi et al. 2019, 2021; Mazaheri et al. 2022; El Hazzat et al. 2023; El Rhoch et al. 2025).

Notably, isolates RZ32 and R33 caused a slight increase in new bulb formation. This increase may reflect an adaptive response of the plants to infection, a phenomenon observed in other plant–Fusarium interactions (Mazaheri et al. 2020). Zare et al. (2011) confirmed that Fusarium oxysporum is the dominant species associated with this disease, although other Fusarium species have also been found.

Palmero et al. (2014) collected isolates from infected corms and tested their pathogenicity on different species within the Iridaceae family. The differences observed between rhizome isolates (RZ32, RZ26, RZ'1) and root isolates (RIZ2B, RIZ31) highlight the importance of the original organ in the pathogen's profile. Similar to what has been seen in saffron (Iridaceae family), where Fusarium isolates from corms cause symptoms ranging from superficial rot to deep, sporulating lesions (Shah et al. 2018), Iris germanica isolates also displayed similar behaviors depending on their origin.

According to Yadav et al. (2024), many plants in the Iridaceae family, such as Crocus, Gladiolus, Iris, and Fressia, are cultivated worldwide for their valuable flowers and blooms. All these plants are susceptible to a variety of diseases caused by different pathogens, resulting in decreased yields and significant economic losses. Corm and rhizome rot are the most damaging diseases across all major species of this family worldwide. Fusarium oxysporum has been identified as a primary cause of these diseases.

Plants of Iris germanica were collected with their rhizomes from the Muslim cemetery of Lamsalla Taza in northeastern Morocco (Achajri et al. 2025). The collected rhizomes were placed in plastic bags and transported to the laboratory for further processing.

Rhizome fragments were cut into small pieces, disinfected with 75% ethanol for 5 min, rinsed in sterile water, blotted dry on sterile paper, and aseptically placed in Petri dishes with Potato Sucrose Agar (PSA) medium, according to the method described by El Aymani et al. (2019) and Ourras et al. (2025). The preserved fungal species were kept on filter paper discs at −20°C in a freezer.

Isolated fungi were examined according to the identification key of Leslie and Summerell (2006), at magnifications of 40×, 100×, 400× and 1000×. Observations included mycelial morphology, conidiophore structure, conidial shape and size, presence of chlamydospores or other resting organs. Mounting fluids were either tap water or lactophenol cotton blue stain (Ourras et al. 2023).

The identification of fungal isolates was conducted based on both macroscopic and microscopic examinations. Macroscopically, colony characteristics such as color, texture, and general morphology on PSA were carefully assessed. For microscopic observation, a small fragment of mycelium was mounted on a glass slide and examined under a light microscope at various magnifications to visualize reproductive structures, including conidia and conidiophores. The morphological traits observed were then compared with authoritative taxonomic descriptions using the identification key of Leslie and Summerell (2006).

Thirteen Fusarium isolates were grown on PSA medium. The cultures were kept at 28°C in the dark for 15 days. Spores were aseptically scraped from the medium surface using a metal spatula, rinsed with distilled water, and filtered through muslin gauze to remove mycelial fragments (Meddah et al. 2011; Boukharta et al. 2012; Mouria et al. 2014). The resulting spore suspension was adjusted to 10⁶ conidia mL⁻¹ using a Malassez cell for counting.

A total of 52 I. germanica rhizomes were washed with running water, disinfected with 2% sodium hypochlorite (NaOCl), rinsed thoroughly in sterile distilled water, and then immersed for 24 h in 100 mL of spore suspension at a concentration of 10⁶ conidia mL⁻¹. Non-inoculated rhizomes served as negative controls. Four replicates were performed for each isolate and for the control.

Three months after inoculation, several morphological and agronomic parameters were assessed. The percentage reduction of each agronomic parameter (RPAP %) relative to the un-inoculated control was calculated using:

RPAP % = (C − IAP) / C × 100

The wilting of Iris plants was evaluated using the Leaf Wilting Index (LWI %):

LWI (%) = Ndl / NTl × 100

In addition, rot of rhizomes and roots was assessed using a modified 0–3 severity scale (Aoyagi et al. 1998) based on the percentage of affected underground tissue showing discolouration and necrosis (Table 1).

Rhizomes from I. germanica plants (average diameter ~3 cm, width ~2 cm) were washed multiple times with running water, disinfected using a 2% sodium hypochlorite solution, and then rinsed three times with sterile distilled water. They were cut with a sterile scalpel into discs approximately 2.5 cm in diameter, and two slices were placed in 90 mm Petri dishes containing three disks of sterile filter paper. Each rhizome slice was inoculated with a 5 mm diameter piece cut from a 7-day-old fungal culture. The plates were kept in a growth-chamber at 28°C under a 12-h light/12-h dark cycle.

After 10 days of incubation, the lesion diameters on the rhizome slices were measured using a dual-scale decimeter. The percentage of rhizome slice colonization (% C) was calculated using:

% C = SCc / STr × 100

Data processing centered on variance analysis using the 5% ANOVA I test. Significant differences between means were assessed with the least significant difference (LSD) test at P < 0.05.

I. germanica plants infected with Fusarium oxysporum and Fusarium solani showed severe root and rhizome rot, reduced growth, and poor bulb formation. These results reveal the high pathogenic risk of Fusarium species and stress the need for integrated control strategies using prevention, rapid detection, and biological control to protect plant quality and reduce economic losses.

None.

NA conceived and designed the study, performed the experiments, and wrote the manuscript. BK was responsible for data curation and processing. ST contributed to writing the manuscript, prepared the figures, and revised the text and language. HE conducted the statistical analyses. KA and AH provided supervision and scientific guidance. AOT and AD contributed to manuscript revision, language verification, and final approval of the version to be published.

No funding was received for conducting this study.

The authors have no relevant financial or non-financial interests to disclose.

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